History
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One of the first pictures of Machu Picchu, taken by Hiram Bingham III in 1912 after major clearing and before reconstruction work began
Machu Picchu’s early chronology continues to be a matter of scholarly debate. Earlier chronological models, based mainly on John H. Rowe's historical reconstruction of the reign of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, have placed the beginning of construction around 1450, 10 years after his takeover. However, a 2021 study led by Richard L. Burger, professor of anthropology at Yale University), reporting 26 AMS radiocarbon measurements from human remains concluded that Machu Picchu was occupied from around 1420 to 1530. Similar conclusions supporting an earlier 15th-century chronology have been reported by other radiocarbon studies. Construction appears to date from two Sapa Incas, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438–1471) and Túpac Inca Yupanqui (1472–1493).
A consensus among archaeologists is that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate after his conquest of the middle and lower Urubamba, this has been interpreted as part of a broader program of establishing royal estates along the Urubamba River. Machu Picchu’s palace complex is thought to have functioned as a seasonal royal retreat. Although Machu Picchu is considered to be a royal estate, it would not have been passed down in the line of succession. Rather it was used for 80 years before being abandoned, seemingly because of the Spanish conquests in other parts of the Inca Empire. It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanish conquistadors even arrived in the area.
Before the arrival of the Spanish[edit]
Daily life in Machu Picchu[edit]
Ancient houses of the lower town (Hurin) within the urban sector
During its use as an estate, it is estimated that about 750 people lived there, with most serving as support staff (yanaconas) who lived there permanently. Though the estate belonged to Pachacutec, religious specialists and temporary specialized workers (mayocs) lived there as well, most likely for the ruler's well-being and enjoyment. During winter, which was usually the harsher season, staffing was reduced to a few hundred servants and a few religious specialists focused on maintenance alone.
Studies of skeletal remains found at Machu Picchu show that most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds. Genome-wide analyses indicate that the retainer community (yanacona and former aclla) was genetically diverse, including Andean, coastal, Ecuadorian, and Amazonian ancestries, with individuals of different ancestries living, reproducing, and being buried together. They lacked the chemical markers and osteological markers they would have if they had been living there their entire lives. Instead, research into skeletal remains has found bone damage from various species of water parasites indigenous to different areas of Peru. There were also varying osteological stressors and varying chemical densities suggesting varying long-term diets characteristic of specific regions that were spaced apart. These diets are composed of varying levels of maize, potatoes, grains, legumes, and fish, but the last-known short-term diet for these people was overall composed of less fish and more corn. This suggests that several of the immigrants were from more coastal areas and moved to Machu Picchu, where corn was a larger portion of food intake. Most skeletal remains found at the site had lower levels of arthritis and bone fractures than those found in most sites of the Inca Empire. Incan individuals who had arthritis and bone fractures were typically those who performed heavy physical labor (such as the Mit'a) or served in the Inca military.
Animals are also suspected to have been brought to Machu Picchu, as there were several bones found that were not native to the area. Most animal bones found were from llamas and alpacas. These animals naturally live at altitudes of 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) rather than the 2,400 meters (7,900 ft) elevation of Machu Picchu. Most likely, these animals were brought in from the Puna region for meat consumption and for their pelts. Guinea pigs were also found at the site in special tomb caves, suggesting that they were at least used for funerary rituals, as it was common throughout the Inca Empire to use them for sacrifices and meat. Six dogs were also recovered from the site. Due to their placements among the human remains, it is believed that they served as companions of the dead.
Agricultural activity[edit]
The andenes (terraces) were mostly used for the slope stabilization and corn cultivation.
Much of the farming carried out at Machu Picchu was done on its andenes (man-made terraces). These terraces were a work of considerable engineering, built to ensure drainage and soil fertility while also protecting the mountain itself from erosion and landslides. However, the terraces were not perfect, as studies of the land show that there were landslides that happened during the construction of Machu Picchu. Still visible are places where the terraces were shifted by landslides and then stabilized by the Inca as they continued to build around the area. The terraces also facilitated the management of water for agriculture, increasing crop yields, with maize likely being the main crop due to its ceremonial importance, alongside possible cultivation of potatoes.
However, terrace farming area makes up only about 4.9 ha (12 acres) of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support more than 750 people living at Machu Picchu. This explains why studies done on the food that the Inca ate at Machu Picchu suggest it was imported from the surrounding valleys and farther afield.
It is estimated that the area around the site has received more than 1,800 mm (71 in) of rain per year since AD 1450, which was more than that needed to support crop growth. Because of this ample rainfall, routine irrigation was generally unnecessary for the terraces. They received so much rain that they were built by Incan engineers specifically to allow for drainage of excess water. Excavation and soil analyses done by Kenneth Wright in the 1990s showed that the terraces were built in layers, with a bottom layer of larger stones covered by loose gravel. On top of the gravel was a layer of mixed sand and gravel packed together, with rich topsoil covering it. Research showed that the topsoil was probably moved from the valley floor to the terraces because it was much better than the soil higher up the mountain.
Rituals and offerings[edit]
In Inca religion, human sacrifice, most prominently the capacocha ritual involving carefully selected, unblemished children, was practised at major huacas on exceptional occasions to secure supernatural favour and to consolidate political and religious authority. At Machu Picchu, however, there is little direct evidence for human sacrifice; the archaeological record instead indicates that animal offerings, particularly camelids, were common, with the Temple of the Condor and adjacent caves interpreted as sites for ritual sacrifice. Numerous camelid remains recovered at the site have been associated with funerary rituals and other ceremonial offerings. Excavations documented approximately 104 caves and rock shelters used as burial chambers around Machu Picchu, containing the remains of about 174 individuals, interpreted as largely belonging to yanaconas of diverse ethnic origins rather than the Inca elite.
Encounters with Westerners[edit]
A 1912 panoramic photograph of Machu Picchu and the Urubamba Canyon, taken during early Western exploration of the site.
Spanish conquest[edit]
Machu Picchu is believed to have been abandoned in the mid-16th century, around the time of the Spanish conquest, likely due to the collapse of Inca rule and disease following European contact. In the late 16th century, Spaniards who had gained control of the area documented that indigenous individuals mentioned returning to "Huayna Picchu", the name that is believed to be originally given to the site by locals. The Spanish conquistador Baltasar de Ocampo had notes of a visit during the end of the 16th century to a mountain fortress called Pitcos with sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, as well the principal as the ordinary ones, being of marble and elaborately carved.
Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have been re-discovered and exploited in the late 19th century by the German engineer Augusto Berns. Some suggest the German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier, though there's no solid evidence. Maps reference Machu Picchu as early as 1874, and a 1904 atlas labeled it as Huayna Picchu.
Search for the Neo-Inca capital[edit]
Inscription left by Agustín Lizárraga in 1902 on the Temple of the Three Windows, marking the earliest known visit to Machu Picchu in modern times.
In 1902 Peruvian explorer Agustín Lizárraga led an expedition to the area now known as Machu Picchu. After several hours of clearing undergrowth they reached the stone structures of the citadel, during that visit Lizárraga marked his surname and the year, "A. Lizárraga 1902", in charcoal on the central window of the Temple of the Three Windows. In 1911 American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham traveled the region looking for the lost capital of the Neo-Inca state (later established to be Vilcabamba), established by Manco Inca after the Spanish conquest, and was led to Machu Picchu by a villager, Melchor Arteaga. Bingham found the surname of Lizárraga and the 1902 date on the temple. Initially disappointed, he documented in his pocket field journal: "Agustín Lizárraga is discoverer of Machu Picchu and lives at San Miguel Bridge just before passing." However, while Bingham initially acknowledged Lizárraga as the discoverer in his early writings and speeches, including Inca Land (1922), he gradually downplayed Lizárraga's role until, in his final version of the story, Lost City of the Incas (1952), Bingham claimed to have found the site himself. In a 1922 letter to the head of the school he had once attended in Honolulu, Bingham wrote:
I suppose that in the same sense of the word as it is used in the expression "Columbus discovered America" it is fair to say that I discovered Machu Picchu. The Norsemen and the French fishermen undoubtedly visited North America long before Columbus crossed the Atlantic. On the other hand it was Columbus who made America known to the civilized world. In the same sense of the word I "discovered" Machu Picchu—in that before my visit and report on it it was not known to the geographical and historical societies in Peru, nor to the Peruvian government.
Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.
1911 American Expedition[edit]
Partial view of Machu Picchu on 24 July 1911, with much of the site covered by dense vegetation.
Bingham was a lecturer at Yale University, although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress in Santiago, he travelled through Peru and was invited to explore the Inca ruins at Choqquequirau in the Apurímac Valley. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city of Vitcos, reportedly located near the town of Torontoy. He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima who showed him helpful references and Father Antonio de la Calancha's Corónica moralizada del Orden de San Agustín en el Perú (Chronicle of the Augustinians), first published in 1631. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water." Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Picchu," though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens." Only later did Bingham learn that Charles Wiener had also heard of the ruins at Huayna Picchu and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.
Armed with this information, Bingham's expedition went down the Urubamba River. En route, Bingham asked local people to show them Inca ruins, especially any place described as having a white rock over a spring.
At Mandor Pampa, Bingham asked farmer and innkeeper Melchor Arteaga if he knew of any nearby ruins. Arteaga said he knew of excellent ruins on the top of Huayna Picchu. The next day, 24 July, Arteaga led Bingham and Sergeant Carrasco across the river on a log bridge and up to the Machu Picchu site. At the top of the mountain, they came across a small hut occupied by a couple of Quechua people, Richarte and Alvarez, who were farming some of the original Machu Picchu agricultural terraces that they had cleared four years earlier. Richarte's 11-year-old son, Pablito, led Bingham along the ridge to the main ruins.
The Sacred Plaza, the Main Temple, and the Temple of the Three Windows after the 1912 clearing work. Above these structures is the Sacred Hill, which features the Intihuatana.
The ruins were mostly covered with vegetation except for the cleared agricultural terraces and clearings used by the farmers as vegetable gardens. Because of the vegetation, Bingham was not able to observe the full extent of the site. He took preliminary notes, measurements, and photographs, noting the fine quality of Inca stonework of several principal buildings. Bingham was unsure about the original purpose of the ruins, but concluded there was no indication that it matched the description of Vitcos.
The expedition continued down the Urubamba and up the Vilcabamba Rivers examining all the ruins they could find. Guided by locals, Bingham rediscovered and correctly identified the site of the old Inca capital, Vitcos (then called Rosaspata), and the nearby temple of Chuquipalta. He then crossed a pass and into the Pampaconas Valley where he found more ruins heavily buried in the jungle undergrowth at Espíritu Pampa, which he named "Trombone Pampa". As was the case with Machu Picchu, the site was so heavily overgrown that Bingham could only note a few of the buildings. In 1964, Gene Savoy further explored the ruins at Espiritu Pampa and revealed the full extent of the site, identifying it as Vilcabamba Viejo, where the Incas fled after the Spanish drove them from Vitcos.
Excavations and controversy (1912–1915)[edit]
Route map of the 1912 Yale Peruvian Expedition, which carried out the first archaeological excavations at Machu Picchu.
Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in 1912 under the sponsorship of Yale University and the National Geographic Society. The expedition conducted site clearing and archaeological work between July and November of that year, under the supervision of George Eaton and Ellwood Erdis. These efforts included burnings, vegetation removal, mapping, and excavations, many of which were carried out with the assistance of local labor organized in part by Ángel Lizárraga, younger brother of Agustín Lizárraga. The work was supported logistically by regional authorities, including the Prefect of Cusco. Excavations resumed in 1914 and 1915 during a subsequent expedition. Although Bingham proposed several hypotheses regarding the purpose and significance of the site, none have been substantiated by later research. During the expeditions, numerous artifacts were recovered and transported to Yale University. Among these was a set of 15th-century ceremonial Incan knives made from bismuth bronze, which are the earliest known artifacts to contain this alloy.
Although local institutions initially welcomed the exploration, they soon accused Bingham of legal and cultural malpractice. Rumors arose that the team was stealing artifacts and smuggling them out of Peru through Bolivia. In fact, Bingham removed many artifacts, but openly and legally; they were deposited in the Yale University Museum. Bingham was abiding by the 1852 Civil Code of Peru; the code stated that "archaeological finds generally belonged to the discoverer, except when they had been discovered on private land". Local press perpetuated the accusations, claiming that the excavation harmed the site and deprived local archaeologists of knowledge about their own history. Landowners began to demand rent from the excavators. By the time Bingham and his team left Machu Picchu, locals had formed coalitions to defend their ownership of Machu Picchu and its cultural remains, while Bingham claimed the artifacts ought to be studied by experts in American institutions.
Dispute over cultural artifacts[edit]
Main article: Peru–Yale University dispute
Aryballos and bowls part of the first batch of thousands of Machu Picchu artifacts returned by Yale University in 2011.
In 1912, 1914 and 1915, Bingham removed thousands of artifacts from Machu Picchu—ceramic vessels, silver statues, jewelry, and human bones—and took them to Yale University for further study, supposedly for 18 months. Yale instead kept the artifacts until 2012, arguing that Peru lacked the infrastructure and systems to care for them. Eliane Karp, an anthropologist and wife of former Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo, accused Yale of profiting from Peru's cultural heritage. Many of the articles were exhibited at Yale's Peabody Museum.
In 2006, Yale returned some pieces but retained more than 250 "museum-quality" pieces, claiming this was supported by federal case law of Peruvian antiquities. In 2007, the Peruvian government and Yale had agreed on a joint traveling exhibition and construction of a new museum and research center in Cusco advised by Yale. Yale acknowledged Peru's title to all the objects, but would share rights with Peru in the research collection, part of which would remain at Yale for continuing study. In November 2010, Yale agreed to return the disputed artifacts. The third and final batch of artifacts was delivered in November 2012. The artifacts are permanently exhibited at the Machu Picchu Museum–Casa Concha, located near Cusco's colonial center and owned by the National University of San Antonio Abad del Cusco.
Later archaeological research and scientific studies[edit]
After Bingham's expeditions, state and institutional projects carried out mainly restoration and limited excavations between 1929 and 1971. From the 1970s to the 1990s a series of targeted excavations and conservation programmes recovered mainly Inca artifacts (ceramics, stone tools and metal objects) and documented disturbed or reworked layers within the site. Between 2014 and 2017 the Archaeological and Interdisciplinary Research Program in the Historic Sanctuary of Machupicchu (PIAISHM) carried out systematic excavations, pollen studies and architectural analyses that clarified construction phases, recorded offerings, and refined interpretations of its function and population. Radiocarbon dating analyses have refined the site's chronology, indicating that Machu Picchu’s main construction and use fall in the early to mid 15th century, slightly earlier than some traditional documentary chronologies suggest.
