History
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Main articles: History of Kathmandu and Timeline of Kathmandu
Manjushri, with his indestructible sword Chandrahasa, the Buddhist deity said to have created the valley
Archaeological excavations in parts of Kathmandu have found evidence of ancient civilizations. The oldest of these findings is a statue, found in Maligaon, that was dated at 185 AD. The excavation of Dhando Chaitya uncovered a brick with an inscription in Brahmi script. Archaeologists believe that it is two thousand years old. Stone inscriptions are ubiquitous elements at the heritage sites and are key sources for the history of Nepal.
The earliest Western reference to Kathmandu appears in an account of Portuguese Jesuit Father Joao Cabral who passed through the Kathmandu Valley in the spring of 1628 and was received graciously by the king of that time, probably King Lakshminarasimha Malla of Kathmandu on their way from Tibet to India. Father Cabral reported that they reached "Cadmendu", the capital of Nepal kingdom.
Ancient history[edit]
The ancient history of Kathmandu is described in its traditional myths and legends. According to the scripture of Swayambhu Purana, present-day Kathmandu was once a huge and deep lake where dwelt mythical serpents (Nāgas) like Karkotaka, Takshaka and Kulika and the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, hermits, yogis, gods and goddesses as well as other celestial beings used to come for ablution in its water. Vipassī Buddha, who lived ninety-one kalpas (aeon) ago, came on a pilgrimage and sowed the seed of a lotus in the lake which grew into a lotus flower with thousand petals. The flower emitted eternal radiant form of light with the Five Great Buddhas, Vairocana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitābha and Amoghasiddhi appearing on each side of the differently coloured rays of the light. Following on the footsteps of Vipassī Buddha, Sikhī Buddha and Vessabhū Buddha came to pay homage to the lotus flower thirty-one kalpas ago. Later on, Bodhisattva Manjushri came to the lake and pondered how to drain the lake so that people can traverse and pay homage to the radiant light. Out of his compassion, he drained the lake out of the valley by cutting the mountain with his indestructible sword; and created other lakes nearby to give shelter to the mythical serpents. The self-arisen ray of light in a thousand - petaled lotus came to be worshipped as Swayambhu. Manjushri then established a city called Manjupattan, and made Dharmakar the ruler of the valley land. After some time, a demon named Banasura closed the outlet, and the valley again turned into a lake. Krishna came to Nepal, killed Banasura, and again drained out the water by cutting the edge of Chobhar hill with this Sudarshana Chakra. He brought some cowherds along with him, and made Bhuktaman the king of Nepal.
Kotirudra Samhita of Shiva Purana, Chapter 11, Shloka 18 refers to the place as Nayapala city, which was famous for its Pashupati Shivalinga. The name Nepal probably originates from this city Nayapala. Very few historical records exists of the period before medieval Licchavi rulers. According to Gopalraj Vansawali, a genealogy of Nepali monarchy, the rulers of Kathmandu Valley before the Licchavis were Gopalas, Mahispalas, Aabhirs, Kirat, and Somavanshi. The Kirata dynasty was established by Yalamber. During the Kirata era, a settlement called Yambu existed in the northern half of old Kathmandu. In some of the Sino-Tibetan languages, Kathmandu is still called Yambu. Another smaller settlement called Yengal was present in the southern half of old Kathmandu, near Manjupattan. During the reign of the seventh Kirata ruler, Jitedasti, Buddhist monks entered Kathmandu valley and established a forest monastery at Sankhu.Kathmandu Durbar Square, 1852
The eyes of Boudhanath, a UNESCO World Heritage, associated with the relics of Kassapa Buddha and Shakyamuni Buddha
Seated Buddha statues in Swayambhunath, one of the ancient pilgrimage sites of Kathmandu and a UNESCO World Heritage site
Temple of Kala Bhairava, a fearsome form of Shiva, worshipped by both Hindus and Buddhists as the 'lord of time and death' at Hanumandhoka palace of Malla era
Scan of map of Nepaul, present-day Kathmandu Valley and surrounding areas in Nepal, reduced from original map by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton and Charles Crawford from surveys in 1802.
Licchavi era[edit]
The Licchavis from Vaisali in modern-day Bihar migrated north and defeated the Kirats, establishing the Licchavi dynasty circa 400 AD. During this era, following the genocide of Shakyas in Lumbini by Virudhaka, the survivors migrated north and entered the forest monastery, masquerading as Koliyas. From Sankhu, they migrated to Yambu and Yengal (Lanjagwal and Manjupattan) and established the first permanent Buddhist monasteries of Kathmandu. This created the basis of Newar Buddhism, which is the only surviving Sanskrit-based Buddhist tradition in the world. With their migration, Yambu was called Koligram and Yengal was called Dakshin Koligram during most of the Licchavi era.
Eventually, the Licchavi ruler Gunakamadeva merged Koligram and Dakshin Koligram, founding the city of Kathmandu. The city was designed in the shape of Chandrahrasa, the sword of Manjushri. The city was surrounded by eight barracks guarded by Ajimas. One of these barracks is still in use at Bhadrakali (in front of Singha Durbar). The city served as an important transit point in the trade between India and Tibet, leading to tremendous growth in architecture. Descriptions of buildings such as Managriha, Kailaskut Bhawan, and Bhadradiwas Bhawan have been found in the surviving journals of travellers and monks who lived during this era. For example, the famous 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang described Kailaskut Bhawan, the palace of the Licchavi king Amshuverma.
The trade route also led to cultural exchange as well. The artistry of the Newar people—the indigenous inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley—became highly sought after during this era, both within the Valley and throughout the greater Himalayas. Newar artists travelled extensively throughout Asia, creating religious art for their neighbours. For example, Araniko led a group of his compatriot artists through Tibet and China. Bhrikuti, the princess of Nepal who married Tibetan monarch Songtsän Gampo, was instrumental in introducing Buddhism to Tibet.
Malla era[edit]
Skyline of Kathmandu, c. 1811
The Licchavi era was followed by the Malla era. Rulers from Tirhut, upon being attacked by the Delhi Sultanate, fled north to the Kathmandu valley. They intermarried with Nepali royalty, and this led to the Malla era. The early years of the Malla era were turbulent, with raids and attacks from Khas and Turk Muslims. There was also a devastating earthquake which claimed the lives of a third of Kathmandu's population, including the king Abhaya Malla. These disasters led to the destruction of most of the architecture of the Licchavi era (such as Mangriha and Kailashkut Bhawan), and the loss of literature collected in various monasteries within the city. Despite the initial hardships, Kathmandu rose to prominence again and, during most of the Malla era, dominated the trade between India and Tibet. Nepali currency became the standard currency in trans-Himalayan trade.
During the later part of the Malla era, Kathmandu Valley comprised four fortified cities: Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, and Kirtipur. These served as the capitals of the Malla confederation of Nepal. These states competed with each other in the arts, architecture, esthetics, and trade, resulting in tremendous development. The kings of this period directly influenced or involved themselves in the construction of public buildings, squares, and temples, as well as the development of waterspouts, the institutionalisation of trusts (called guthis), the codification of laws, the writing of dramas, and the performance of plays in city squares. Evidence of an influx of ideas from India, Tibet, China, Persia, and Europe among other places can be found in a stone inscription from the time of king Pratap Malla. Books have been found from this era that describe their tantric tradition (e.g. Tantrakhyan), medicine (e.g. Haramekhala), religion (e.g. Mooldevshashidev), law, morals, and history. Amarkosh, a Sanskrit-Nepal Bhasa dictionary from 1381, was also found. Architecturally notable buildings from this era include Kathmandu Durbar Square, Patan Durbar Square, Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the former durbar of Kirtipur, Nyatapola, Kumbheshwar, the Krishna temple, and others.
Medieval era[edit]
Early Shah rule[edit]
The Gorkha Kingdom ended the Malla confederation after the Battle of Kathmandu in 1768. This marked the beginning of the modern era in Kathmandu. The Battle of Kirtipur was the start of the Gorkha conquest of the Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu was adopted as the capital of the Gorkha empire, and the empire itself was dubbed Nepal. During the early part of this era, Kathmandu maintained its distinctive culture. Buildings with characteristic Nepali architecture, such as the nine-story tower of Basantapur, were built during this era. However, trade declined because of continual war with neighbouring nations. Bhimsen Thapa supported France against Great Britain; this led to the development of modern military structures, such as modern barracks in Kathmandu. The nine-storey tower Dharahara was originally built during this era.
Rana rule[edit]
Rana rule over Nepal started with the Kot massacre of 1846, which occurred near Hanuman Dhoka Durbar. During this massacre, most of Nepal's high-ranking officials were massacred by Jung Bahadur Rana and his supporters. Another massacre, the Bhandarkhal Massacre, was also conducted by Kunwar and his supporters in Kathmandu. During the Rana regime, Kathmandu's alliance shifted from anti-British to pro-British; this led to the construction of the first buildings in the style of Western European architecture. The most well-known of these buildings include Singha Durbar, Garden of Dreams, Shital Niwas, and the old Narayanhiti palace. The first modern commercial road in the Kathmandu Valley, the New Road, was also built during this era. Trichandra College (the first college of Nepal), Durbar High School (the first modern school of Nepal), and Bir Hospital (the first hospital of Nepal) were built in Kathmandu during this era. Education was only accessible to the privileged class. Rana rule was marked by despotism, economic exploitation and religious persecution.
Modern History (2000-Present)[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding missing information. (March 2025)
The turn of the 21st century brought major political and social upheavals to Kathmandu. In June 2001, the Nepalese royal massacre at Narayanhiti Palace claimed the lives of King Birendra, Queen Aishwarya, Crown Prince Dipendra, and several others, and following Dipendra’s brief, comatose reign, Gyanendra was appointed king. After the 2006 Revolution, it was turned into a museum.
Kathmandu later became the center of the 2006 People’s Movement (Jana Andolan II), when widespread protests forced King Gyanendra to restore parliament on 24 April 2006 and set Nepal on the path toward becoming a federal democratic republic.
On 28 February 2025, a magnitude 6.1 earthquake struck north of Kathmandu, Nepal, according to the National Earthquake Monitoring and Research Centre. The quake, centered in Sindhupalchok District near the Himalayan border with Tibet, was measured at magnitudes ranging from 5.5 to 6.1 by different agencies. Despite strong tremors that startled residents, no significant damage or casualties were reported, except for a minor landslide and a prison inmate who sustained a broken hand while fleeing. Local officials confirmed structural cracks in a police post but no major destruction.
In September 2025, widespread Gen Z protests erupted in Kathmandu after the government imposed a ban on multiple social media platforms. The protests quickly grew to include complaints about corruption, nepotism, and lack of opportunity. The army was deployed on the streets of Kathmandu, and many government buildings and residences of important government officials were burnt. Security forces responded with lethal force, resulting in dozens of casualties and major damage to government property, and the prime minister eventually resigned. Following the unrest, President Ram Chandra Poudel appointed former Supreme Court Chief Justice Sushila Karki as Nepal’s first female prime minister, and parliament was dissolved with fresh elections scheduled for March 2026.
