History
[edit]
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Goma.
The village of Ngoma was a port for lake traffic and a crossroads for the overland trade routes between Central Africa and the Indian Ocean. In 1894, the explorer Gustav Adolf von Götzen, following the footsteps of an earlier missionary, was traveling to Rwanda from the eastern coast of Africa and passed through the village, which he recorded as Goma. In 1906, officers of the Congo Free State established Goma post opposite Gisenyi as a military outpost to oversee maritime activities on Lake Kivu, which later transformed into a civil status office. Around 1930, the Goma precinct accommodated camps for laborers of the Eastern Railway (CFE), initially sited along Lake Kivu's eastern shores. By the mid-20th century, Goma had become an essential hub, and served as the endpoint of the Vici Congo road network and a port for the transshipment of agricultural commodities and building materials to and from Bukavu. In 1945, it burgeoned into a state post under Rutshuru Territory's jurisdiction, experiencing a rapid demographic upsurge with approximately 8,600 inhabitants. Goma's prominence as a city grew steadily and earned it the status of an extra-customary center that year. Educational infrastructure developed in tandem, with institutions such as the "École Royale" (now the Goma Institute or INSTIGO) and the École Primaire d'Application de l'institut de Goma (EPAIGO) catering to European settlers. Meanwhile, the native population relied on the Saint André School, later renamed Kyeshero Primary School, for primary education.
The inception of urbanization in Belgian Congo was formalized with the promulgation of a decree on 21 February 1949, which instituted entities responsible for evaluating and issuing building permits, overseeing demolitions, modifying land plots, and making changes to the urban landscape. In 1951, Goma was elevated to the territorial and capital level of North Kivu. This period also witnessed movements advocating for administrative separation between Goma and Rutshuru, leading to the establishment of deliberative and executive bodies in Kirotshe and later in Sake.
The urban sprawl of Goma adhered to the archetypal colonial planning paradigm with the demarcation of separate neighborhoods for Europeans (cité Européenne) and indigenous Congolese (cité indigène). The latter was limited to contemporary Birere, a densely populated quartier abutting the Rwandan border. Meanwhile, the quartiers allocated for European settlers were concentrated within the contemporary city center (quartier les Volcans) and an enclave of the Himbi quartier, which persists as the most urbanized, affluent, and wealthy parts of the city.
On 25 December 1966, North Kivu regained its district status before becoming a region following the constitutional referendum of June 1967. By 10 July 1988, North Kivu attained its regional autonomy, promulgating its status as a sovereign entity within the tripartite division of the Kivu region into provinces: North Kivu, South Kivu, and Maniema. A decree issued on 14 September 1988, outlined critical urban development guidelines, such as construction alignments, the delineation of housing plans and communication routes, and the segregation of sustainable residential districts from native-dominated huts. This marked the onset of a segregationist urban paradigm, in which Congolese cities became characterized by a dichotomy between modern urban centers and native settlements. As a result of Goma's burgeoning urbanization, the city was officially designated as the provincial capital of the newly established North Kivu province under Ordinance Law No. 88-178, issued on 15 November 1988.
1994 Hutu refugee crisis[edit]
The 1994 Rwandan genocide was executed by the interim Rwandan government against the Tutsi population and Hutu moderates. In response, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), formed by Tutsi refugees from Uganda, who already held control over significant portions of northern Rwanda after their invasion in 1990 and the ongoing Civil War, overthrew the Hutu government in Kigali, forcing them out. Over two million Hutus fled the country to Zaire and many Tutsis and Hutus were internally displaced within Rwanda. Although Hutu extremists were responsible for the mass killing of Tutsis, scholars like Judi Rever and Filip Reyntjens argue that the main perpetrators of the slaughter were the Tutsi-dominated RPF, led by Paul Kagame. According to Judi Rever, Kagame personally commanded massacres at places like Byumba soccer stadium in northern Rwanda and ordered the pursuit of Hutus in the Zairean forests. They devised ways to dispose of large numbers of bodies by "dissolving them in acid, dumping them in rivers and swamps, or burning them, and established open air crematorium". Various UN missions attempted to establish safe zones and facilitate the movement of refugees. Between 13 June and 14 July 1994, an overwhelming number of refugees, ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 per day, fled across the border to Goma, resulting in a severe humanitarian crisis, as there was an acute lack of shelter, food and water. However, the Zairean government took it upon itself to garner attention for the situation. Shortly after the arrival of nearly one million refugees, a deadly cholera outbreak swept through the Hutu refugee camps near Goma, claiming thousands of lives. RPF-aligned forces, which had fought in the conflict, crossed the border to Zaire and in acts of revenge also claimed several lives
Aerial photograph of the Mihanda refugee camp
First Congo War[edit]
Further information: First Congo War and Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War
As early as mid-1996, infiltrated units from Rwanda began targeting Hutu refugee camps along the Rutshuru road, even before formal hostilities began. On the evening of 27 June 1996, an infiltrated group allegedly carried out an attack on the Kibumba refugee camp, resulting in casualties among Hutu refugees, soldiers from the Contingent Zaïrois pour la sécurité des camps (CZSC), and Red Cross personnel.
During the First Congo War, from mid-October 1996, Rwandan infiltrations intensified, accompanied by sporadic attacks on refugee camps along the Goma to Rutshuru road by the newly formed Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), a rebel movement led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, and Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) led by Paul Kagame, who aimed to overthrow Mobutu Sese Seko's regime, accusing him of excluding Tutsis from governance and failing to stop the génocidaires. However, the United Nations Security Council noted that both the RPA and AFDL pillaged Zaire's minerals for nearly two and a half decades and conducted massacres throughout the conflict. The Kibumba camp, situated twenty-five kilometers north of Goma, was the first to fall under assault. On the night of 25–26 October 1996, AFDL and RPA soldiers bombarded the Kibumba camp, resulting in casualties among Hutu refugees and the destruction of the camp's hospital. Subsequently, approximately 194,000 refugees fled Kibumba towards the Mugunga camp. The Katale camp also faced attacks on the same night, but Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)/CZSC soldiers and ex-FAR/Interahamwe units repelled the assailants initially. However, on 26 October 1996, AFDL and RPA forces attacked the Katale camp, resulting in numerous Hutu refugee casualties and the death of a Zairian soldier. They also allegedly killed several Hutu refugees using bladed weapons. Following confrontations with FAZ soldiers and ex-FAR/Interahamwe units from the Katale camp, who offered reinforcement, AFDL and RPA forces seized control of the FAZ military camp at Rumangabo.
By 30 October, refugees from Katale and Kahindo camps began to depart, with some heading towards Masisi via Tongo groupement of Bwito Chiefdom, while others attempted to reach the Mugunga camp through the Virunga National Park. However, AFDL and RPA troops had blocked the road to Goma, complicating the refugees' escape routes. On 31 October 1996, AFDL and RPA soldiers allegedly massacred hundreds of Hutu refugees who remained in the Kahindo and Katale camps. Roberto Garretón, the Special Rapporteur on the violation of human rights in Zaire, estimated the casualties and highlighted the brutality inflicted on the refugees.
In the aftermath of AFDL/RPA offensives in North Kivu, some refugees opted to return to Rwanda, though their numbers remained small. UNHCR reported approximately 900 Hutu refugees returning to Rwanda between 26 October and 31 October 1996. The reluctance of many refugees to return stemmed from both physical and psychological pressures, including fear of reprisals from AFDL/RPA soldiers. There were reports of AFDL/RPA soldiers killing refugees who expressed a desire to return to Rwanda. Determining the exact number of refugees killed by AFDL/RPA soldiers in attacks along the Goma to Rutshuru road was challenging. However, local NGOs involved in burial operations provided insights into the scale of the atrocities. The United Nations Mapping Report team documented numerous alleged incidents, including mass burials and killings in and around refugee camps between November 1996 and April 1997. The violence extended beyond the dismantling of refugee camps; Hutu survivors faced persecution while attempting to flee. In November 1996, AFDL/RPA soldiers reportedly targeted Hutu survivors from Kahindo and Katale camps, executing adult males. These survivors, along with others who resettled in makeshift camps, were subjected to further attacks in the Virunga National Park, resulting in additional casualties. The atrocities persisted for several months, with killings reported well into 1997. Witness testimonies highlighted the grim reality faced by refugees, with bodies discovered daily in former camp sites. On 11 April 1997, AFDL/RPA soldiers allegedly massacred hundreds of refugees near Kibumba village. These refugees, intercepted while attempting to return to Rwanda, were detained and subsequently killed by AFDL/RPA forces.
By the end of 1997, AFDL rebels advanced to Kinshasa, driving out Mobutu and leading to Laurent-Désiré Kabila proclaiming himself president on 17 May, renaming the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
Second Congo War[edit]
Further information: Second Congo War
Within a year of assuming power, Laurent-Désiré Kabila found himself in conflict with his former allies, and in 1998, the Rwandan government threw its support behind a Goma-based rebel movement known as the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD), occasionally denoted as RCD-Goma. The Goma refugee encampments, where Hutu refugees and Interahamwe militants had forged a militia known as the Democratic Force for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), morphed into battlegrounds as Rwandan government forces and the RCD clashed with them to assert dominion.
On 2 August 1998, General Sylvain Buki announced via Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC) in Goma that a rebellion had erupted within the Congolese Armed Forces (FAC). The 10th Brigade of the FAC mutinied, leading to the swift capture of Goma by the RCD and Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), with minimal resistance. Goma remained beyond the reach of the Kinshasa government's forces for nearly three years, save for sporadic barrage. Amidst these conflicts, the RCD's bias towards the local Tutsi community, Rwandan interference in provincial affairs, and the brutality of RCD and RPA troops towards civilians in North Kivu prompted many locals to join Mayi–Mayi armed groups to defend their communities. The Mayi–Mayi militias utilized forested areas and national parks as bases for launching attacks against RCD and RPA forces.
With support from Kinshasa, the Mayi–Mayi and ALiR intensified ambushes and pillaging against RCD/RPA soldiers and civilian populations. Consequently, RCD/RPA control was limited to certain urban areas. In response, they increased search operations in various regions. The Second Congo War was unprecedented in Africa for the loss of civilian life in massacres and atrocities. By 2003, the Rwandan Banyamulenge-supported insurgent factions wearied of the conflict, and discord surfaced between them and Rwanda. In 2002 and 2003, a tenuous negotiated peace ensued among the myriad factions embroiled in the conflict.
Ongoing conflict, 2002-present[edit]
Aerial view of Goma in October 2010
Since the conclusion of the Second Congo War, Goma has been plagued by conflict despite the peace agreements of 2002. In 2006, it became a focal point for the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo's 81st and 83rd Brigades, who remained faithful to Congolese Tutsi military defector Laurent Nkunda, who accused the government of neglecting to assimilate his military faction into the national army and failing to safeguard their interests. Numerous heinous crimes were committed by Nkunda during his reign of terror. In 2002, he sanctioned the massacre of over 150 people in Kisangani. In Bukavu in 2004, his insurgent affiliates, in conjunction with Colonel Jules Mutebutsi, executed widespread atrocities, including sexual violence and arbitrary detentions, predominantly targeting young girls. Human Rights Watch clamored for Nkunda's arrest in February 2006, but it wasn't until June of that year that his military faction made significant territorial gains, capturing localities like Bunagana, located 80 km from Goma.
View of houses in Goma, 2014
Despite intermittent losses and counteroffensives by FARDC's 9th Integrated Brigade, Nkunda's forces maintained control over certain areas like Bunagana and Runyoni. By November 2006, reports cited three fatalities and 41 injuries, among them civilians, and by December, the violence had displaced over 80,000 people, many of whom sought refuge on the outskirts of Goma. The conflict escalated further in early 2007, with Goma's healthcare organization, Groupe d'Entraide et de Solidarité Médicale (GESOM), treating an average of three rape survivors daily from both urban and rural sectors. On 17 May, FARDC arrested 14 Rwandan nationals, including members of Nkunda's brigade, as MONUSCO noted that his militia in North Kivu was wearing distinctive Rwandan military uniforms. Later in May, the French Ambassador to the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bernard Prévost, visited the Mugunga displacement camp near Sake and announced that France would allocate over €2.6 million to the World Food Programme to support displaced persons in the eastern DRC. In June 2007, William Lacy Swing, Director General of the International Organization for Migration, expressed profound concern about the escalating conflict, citing rising insecurity, ethnic discord, the swelling numbers of internally displaced persons, and an increase in human rights abuses in North Kivu. Toward the end of June, Rwandan combatants launched a deadly assault on Lake Kivu, resulting in the deaths of four people, including three fishermen and a Congolese naval officer. The attackers also looted valuable fishing equipment and an outboard motor. Initial negotiations with Rwandan officials regarding cross-border security on Lake Kivu ultimately facilitated the partial recovery of the stolen fishing assets in Rwanda.
Displaced residents from the Kibumba-Rutshuru axis, fleeing clashes between Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and advancing March 23 Movement rebels, set up camp in Kanyaruchinya, 4 km north of Goma
On 6 September, MONUSCO brokered a ceasefire between the FARDC and forces loyal to Laurent Nkunda. However, the following day saw renewed clashes, with most of the population from Goma's surrounding regions seeking shelter in the Mugunga, Lac-Vert, and Ndosho neighborhoods, as well as Goma Centre, fearing further confrontations between the FARDC and Nkunda's forces. Fighting between Nkunda's forces and the Mai-Mai community-based militia, Congolese Patriotic Resistance (PARECO), which claimed to protect its community from Nkunda's forces, led to the deaths of 5 people in Bitonga in southern Masisi Territory. Nine deceased people were subsequently uncovered in three separate mass graves within Rubare, approximately 12 km from Rutshuru, north of Goma. Two other bodies were discovered in the administrative support post of Kisharo's office, around 20 kilometers from Kiwanja, along the route to Nyamilima and Shasha, within Rutshuru Territory. On 27 October 2008, the Battle of Goma broke out in the city between the Congolese army, supported by MONUSCO, and Nkunda's CNDP rebels; 200,000 refugees fled the town.
On 3 November 2012, there was a clash between Congolese and Rwandan troops on the border just north of Goma. Goma was later seized by the M23 Movement on 20 November 2012. Later that year, the Rwandan-backed rebel group, the March 23 Movement (M23), made significant territorial gains in North Kivu. Fighting began with the FARDC in Nyiragongo Territory, particularly in the Kibumba groupement of Bukumu Chiefdom, resulting in the M23 taking direct control of the entire territory. The territorial administrator and most of his staff fled strategically. As clashes spread to the southern part of the Munigi groupement and surrounding areas, Goma ultimately fell to M23 on 20 November 2012. Under M23 rule, the city's residents experienced terror due to the rebel presence, limited access to drinking water, lack of electricity, deteriorating hygiene and sanitation, sharply rising prices, higher unemployment, restrictions on freedom of expression, and increased social inequality. 13 people were killed, 23 women were sexually assaulted, 17 men were kidnapped, 109 motorcycles were confiscated, and 1,970 laptops were stolen.
On 22 February 2021, the Italian ambassador, Luca Attanasio, was killed in an apparent kidnapping attempt near Virunga National Park. He was part of the U.N.'s World Food Programme (WFP). Two others were also killed.
The M23 campaign, which pitted M23 against the FARDC and other armed groups, has displaced around 1.1 million people, including over 600,000 now confined to overcrowded, unsanitary displacement sites surrounding Goma. Some regional efforts have sought to contain the crisis, including the deployment of Southern African Development Community (SADC) forces and high-level summits aimed at reviving the peace process and securing a ceasefire. On 12 February, South Africa announced the dispatch of 2,900 troops to support the SADC mission in eastern DRC, though the operation suffered losses when two South African soldiers were killed and three wounded by M23 mortar fire on 15 February. Despite these initiatives, prospects for lasting peace remain uncertain, particularly in the absence of direct dialogue between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda. By January 2025, Goma was again targeted in a renewed M23 offensive, resulting in widespread casualties, looting, infrastructure damage, and mass displacement, with nearly 3,000 people reportedly killed. On 27 January, the city was captured by M23, and more than 4,000 detainees escaped from Muzenze prison amid the fighting, during which hundreds of female inmates were reportedly raped and burned alive. A year later, on 27 January 2026, the Congolese government organized a national commemoration titled Résistance, Résilience et Unité du peuple congolais (meaning "Resistance, Resilience, and Unity of the Congolese People") at the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Kinshasa to honor civilians killed or displaced by the conflict.
Coltan conflict-driven crime[edit]
Quarry near Goma
The regional conflict surrounding coltan and other lucrative resources has compounded Goma's challenges with crime. Armed groups, including the Rwandan military, the RCD-Goma, and various opposition factions, have been implicated in the systemic targeting of civilians as they vied for dominion over resource-abundant zones. During 2000 and 2001, RCD-Goma forces reportedly conducted a spate of violent incursions into residences, particularly targeting individuals engaged in the coltan trade. Notably, on 18 November 2000, armed men, including RCD-Goma combatants, attacked the residence of Edouard Kasereka Kahimba, a coltan buyer. The assailants demanded business records and coltan, injuring Kahimba and assaulting his family members. On 29 December 2000, combatants reportedly targeted a coltan trader known as "Safro" Sanvura, ransacking his residence and shooting indiscriminately. Similar incidents persisted into 2001, such as the attack on Pierre Hakizimana on 9 April, in which he was robbed of $3,000 at gunpoint.
On 8 September 2001, unidentified men in uniform conducted an early-morning attack on Sengiyumva, a 41-year-old coltan trader residing in Katoyi. He sustained three gunshot wounds to his leg after being beaten with sticks, with both cash and mineral resources being seized. Subsequently, on 14 October 2001, another trader, Papy, aged 26, endured a violent assault in his home, resulting in two gunshot wounds to the abdomen, allegedly inflicted by RCD-Goma forces. Though Papy survived, he required prolonged hospitalization for recovery.